Streamlining cross-border shipping of live invertebrates

issue can be a significant barrier to the growth of a sustainable biocontrol sector. We also explore misconceptions (about packaging, liability, and paperwork) and unclear rules (generic veterinary certificates which are rarely relevant for most invertebrates) that may cause express courier companies to refuse carrying live invertebrates. These issues often result in packages not being handled as a priority during transport connections or customs clearance, and significant subsequent delivery delays. This article proposes improvements that could streamline this kind of transport with changes that should fit within existing shipping processes. This article is furthermore intended as a call to transport and inspection stakeholders to use the existing guidance and other resources to support this underdeveloped sector more effectively.


Live invertebrate shipping: an underserviced market sector
Invertebrates are shipped across the world for various uses from research activities to commercial use in agriculture, environmental protection, and/or for human-and animal health purposes. Shipping activities can be of sporadic nature, consisting of single specimen to large consignments of millions of invertebrates shipped weekly (Table   I). Failure to secure these shipments can have enormous impacts on field control activities that correspond with pest outbreaks, for example, or in the long term on the continued reliance on conventional pesticide, For the purpose of this article, we refer to invertebrates as including arthropods, such as insects and arachnids (including biocontrol agents such as mites and nematodes) but excluding crustaceans. Additionally ,   the table presented Table IV, at the end of the article, provides a glossary of commonly used logistics terms for ease of understanding.

Transport constraints: time sensitivity
For the shipper, the most important requirement is on-time service.
Invertebrates are shipped at crucial species-specific life stages.
Therefore, reactivity and flexibility at collection is highly valuable, and priority handling all along the transit chain is crucial.  Figure 1 shows the impact of the aforementioned extended transport duration on fruit flies; malformation at emergence and death due to suffocation (insufficient air supply).

INSERT FIGURE 1 HERE
Lack of available airfreight due to unforeseen situations, such as flight restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic and/or unavailability of more direct routes only serviced by low-cost aircraft operators (prohibited from taking live cargo), highlights the need for alternatives, such as express carriers or integrators (DHL, FedEx, UPS, etc.) in filling the gap. These stakeholders have end-to-end multimodal supply chain capacities and existing logistics routes that could be exploited for more efficient transport of live invertebrates (Table II).

A crucial role of express carriers or integrators Concerns
A primary issue raised by express carriers has been shipper insurance requirements, i.e. on timely delivery and arrival quality (survival). Although no shipper/receiver expects 100% fault-free services, it is expected that the fastest routing and processing should be provided to ensure timeous delivery (similarly to other perishable products).
Shipping routes that involve transit through airports may, however, suffer from delays that are beyond the responsibility of the carrier and would lead either to increased financial charges or viability loss of the shipment. Increased awareness by all stakeholders is crucial to ensure a streamlined service (Table II).
Secondly, low frequency shipments are not attractive for most carriers.
However, taken collectively, the diversity of users (research centres/industrial applications) that are currently underserved should make this sector commercially attractive (Table I; Oliva et al. [9]; Enkerlin & Pereira [6], this issue).
Concerns on the shipping conditions and packaging are also often raised by express carriers. Some prohibit invertebrate transportation based on their perceived risks of escape and cross-contamination of vehicles, containers, and other products in warehouses, and/or risks of invertebrate-escape into the wild. These concerns seem to originate from a misconception regarding the packaging preparation by the shipper, or confusion over destruction or disposal procedures for undeliverable items. Prevention of escape is generally adequately handled by the shipper, to whom the security (confinement) and quality of the consignment is of primary importance (Table III).
INSERT  (Table III). 'Known consignor' agreements are also an effective procedure where the shipper is trusted as an experienced safe exporter, therefore, allowing faster processing of the packages by airlines and customs in the countries covered by the agreement. Such arrangements, however, only work when shipping through cargo, and still do not guarantee rapid processing for delivery, as it mainly circumvents inspection at the exporting country airport(s), but not during international transit steps or at the final port of entry.

Logistics of commodities with similar requirements
Express carriers or integrators already have efficient logistic solutions in place for several kinds of fragile goods, such as vaccines and other perishables.

Current limitations of live invertebrate import documentation
There are a various guidelines (official and voluntary; international, regional, national) regarding general or sometimes sector-specific procedures supporting safe and efficient (timely) trade in live invertebrates. Shipping agents should have confidence that the shipper and receiver have adequately dealt with these requirements. These guidelines are, however, rarely known by shippers and transport stakeholders.

Recommendation for specific labelling
Even when all required documentation for import is in place,  41_1_16_Wohlfarter -pre-print 20/31    Shipper is responsible for the IBCAs to be packaged securely to ensure their conditions during the shipping period are maintained as needed and that the package is secured against any escape. There are strict protocols used in packaging invertebrates for shipment.
Strict protocols (IATA LAR) used in packaging invertebrates for successful shipment to address handling conditions.

Ensure quality and survival: Suitable transport conditions
Shipper is responsible for the vaccine to be packaged in a manner that temperature extremes encountered during shipping will not be a detriment to the vaccine.
Shipper is responsible for the IBCAs to be packaged in a manner to cope with temperature extremes encountered during shipping to ensure their viability will not be affected negatively.

Ensure flawless logistics: Proper documentation
Proper documentation for approval to import the vaccine must be in place for customs inspection. Freight brokers or shippers are responsible to provide this to the carrier.

Proper documentation (Sanitary or
Phytosanitary certificates) for approval to import the invertebrates must be in place for customs inspection. Freight brokers or the shippers are responsible to provide this to the carrier.
Through the IPPC and NPPOs and their respective competent authorities, regulations and protocols are in place to accommodate the approval and authorization of importation of IBCAs. Similar procedures can be followed for other invertebrates. "Known consignor" status or prior notification may facilitate quick passage.

Key steps for an optimal shipment
Shipping of vaccine Shipping IBCAs How can invertebrate shipping be improved

Opportunities for carriers
Express carriers will accept vaccine for international shipment and delivery.
Express carriers sometimes prohibit shipment of invertebrates.
Based on the protocols and regulatory approval processes in place, shipping invertebrates by express carriers is no different from shipping vaccine and should be accepted.
* WHO (10) specifies labelling, packaging, and temperature monitoring procedures for vaccines. Responsibilities of shippers/receivers are outlined. Various labels on delivery time temperature range requirements are listed. Route and advance notification advice is also given. Shipping packaging and monitoring device specifications are provided for many common examples of vaccines. A similar model Guidance document could be produced for insects.

Aircraft operators
Aircraft operators, also known as airlines and air carriers, provide air transportation for goods. A transport contract (air waybill) binds an aircraft operator with the relevant contracted parties for the safe and secure transport of cargo and mail from one location (e.g. the airport of departure) to another (e.g. the airport of arrival). The air cargo may be transported on passenger aircraft or all-cargo aircraft. In some instances, particularly for short distances, aircraft operators may also transport air cargo by road. The transport contract remains an air waybill, however, and the road segment is considered as a flight, with a designated flight number. This type of operation is known as a 'road feeder service'. and as evidence of the receipt of goods.

Consignment
One or more items accepted by the carrier from one shipper at one time and at one address, receipted in one lot and moving on one air waybill or shipment record to one consignee at one destination address.

Express carriers/ Integrators
Express carriers combine the work of a broker, haulier, freight forwarder, ground handler and aircraft operator into one single company or group, which is why they are also sometimes referred to as 'integrators'. Express delivery has thus become a specific business model in the cargo industry. Express carriers manage end-to-end multimodal supply chains.
They operate sophisticated track-and-trace information technology systems, which allow them to monitor the progress of an individual shipment through their chain, from pick up to delivery. Express carriers typically transport high-valueadded, time-sensitive cargo, with a time definite delivery.

Freight broker
A broker is an independent agent who facilitates the movement of goods from buyer to seller, for instance by arranging air transport or meeting Customs requirements, such as goods declarations. Brokering functions are often integrated with forwarding, consolidation and even warehousing functions within a single entity.

Freight forwarders
Freight forwarders are part of the transport logistics process within the supply chain and their main task is to arrange for air shipments to be managed in such a way that they are ready for transportation by aircraft operators. Such arrangements might include the consolidation of cargo. A freight forwarder and logistics service provider may offer a service relating to the preparation, storage, carriage, and final delivery of goods, including the applicable documentary and facilitation formalities. A forwarder rarely acts as carrier of the goods. A forwarder's prime responsibility is to safeguard the interests of its customer, the consignor or shipper.

Ground handlers
Ground handlers are subcontracted and act on behalf of freight forwarders and/or aircraft operators. This occurs when the freight forwarder or aircraft operator does not have the necessary facilities. Ground handling services can include the provision of warehouses to accept, handle, prepare, and tag cargo and mail, as well as loading/unloading, transit, and storage of cargo and mail. Ground handlers are responsible for dealing with operational aspects, based on the instructions of freight forwarders and aircraft operators.

Known consignors
An entity may act as a known consignor when it originates cargo or mail for its own account and when its procedures meet common security rules and standards sufficient to allow the carriage of cargo or mail on commercial aircraft. Once a known consignor has accounted for the security status of cargo, the consignment may be delivered to a regulated agent, other approved entity, or directly to the aircraft operator, who then takes over the responsibility for keeping it secure until it is loaded on to an aircraft.

Consignee
The consignee is the party designated on the invoice or packing list as the recipient of the goods at the end of the transport movement.

Regulated agents
A regulated agent is a freight forwarder or any other entity (e.g. ground handler) that conducts business with an aircraft operator and provides security controls that are accepted or required for cargo or mail by the appropriate authority.
Once approved as a regulated agent, an entity may conduct security controls for cargo, including the screening of goods. An aircraft operator may receive cargo secured by a regulated agent, which accounts for the security status of consignments.

Shipper/ Sender/ Consignor
A consignor is the entity or individual who initiates the movement or transport of the goods. In other words, it is the sender. (A 'known consignor' is an entity recognized in some States as meeting specified security requirements). The term 'shipper' is often used to describe the entity or individual who initiates the trade in goods. Consignor and shipper are separate roles but can be the same entity or individual.

Box 1
Shipping challenges that prohibit SIT initiatives from collaborating with the successful OKSIR model on production and release as an interim phase.
The Okanagan-Kootenay Sterile Insect Release (OKSIR) Program in Canada employs sterile insects to control codling moths in pome fruit production. Over the past 25 years a 96% reduction in pesticideuse has been achieved (8).
Sterile insects have successfully been shipped to South Africa and New Zealand for pilot projects to implement SIT. However, shipping costs prohibit expansion to regular commercial shipping due to these consignments being restricted to 'air cargo' only, and excluding couriers or other integrated options covering the entire route with expedited delivery for a perishable product. Particularly for emerging interests in European countries, shipping costs have been prohibitive.
Collaboration between OKSIR and a commercial partner in the USA to deliver SIT to growers has also been hampered by policy. Although distribution on either side of the international border is handled by respective couriers, the actual cross-border shipping has only been practical when conducted by permitted hand-carriage.
Lastly, misalignment of transport and certification related policies between exporting-and importing countries can cause a serious impasse. For import into New Zealand, codling moth consignments needed to be accompanied by a veterinary certificate. Yet, the mandated NPPO, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), was unable to issue such documentation, as the procedure for lepidoptera was not covered by Federal law in Canada.